Native American Kitchen
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Pre-European Native Kitchen
Summer is the season for powwows. Like stepping stones across America, a series of colorful festivals offers, as part of the entertainment, tastes of traditional fry bread, beans, and assorted specialties, many of which date back to the nineteenth century. These goodies are served from modern grills, steam trays, deep fryers, and such, and carry little evidence of the remarkable early hand-fashioned kitchen utensils that predate the festivals and, in some cases, even the foods themselves. The collector of Native American food artifacts may indeed be at a loss in connecting early artifacts with these festival foods.
In fact, the technology of the early days before European contact reveals an entirely different set of cookware's and consequent food ways. The indigenous people of the New World had not developed metallurgy as Europeans did, having used only limited copper utensils in ceremonial rites. Although in some ways theirs was a stone age culture, today we can only respect the high level of development in which stone, bone, clay, wood, and leather were artfully and skillfully shaped by hand and applied to satisfying the needs of their cuisine.
I have been interested in collecting and using these old utensils with some concern for authenticity, but identifications are not always easy. Most helpful have been archaeological studies, early travelers' reports, and the writings of American anthropologists undertaken around 1900. Even considering their careful notes on dating when undertaking and substantiating oral history material, it must be remembered that a substantial time had passed during which exchange of cultural artifacts and modernization were possible.
In parallel fashion, the cuisine itself was once quite different from the one we see portrayed today, depending as it did on agricultural corn, beans, pumpkins and squash and a combination of wild hunted and gathered local foodstuffs. Although I have substituted clay or stone pots for cast iron pans with great success, I have nevertheless looked with a doubtful eye on the recipes that required such modern or non-indigenous foods as sugar, yeast, baking powder or soda, canned beets, ketchup, or wheat. While these are often the traditional foods of Native Americans today, I have been more interested in the basic tradition that was influenced over centuries to produce that tradition.
Setting aside the early sixteenth and seventeenth century introductions-plants, animals, and tools brought from abroad-we are left with a style of cookery that is often flavorful and inviting.The following examples are offered to help with both identifications and a re-creation of the cuisine itself.
Ceramic containers are one of the most enduring of these crafts. While Europeans were no strangers to clay, their first descriptions of the American indigenous culture noted the fine pottery utensils, and called them every bit as fine and large as any being made in Europe at the time. These receptacles were entirely made of hand-no wheels or other devices having been developed here-were of coil or pinch-pot construction and sometimes remarkably large. When the clay had dried to a leathery hardness, they were often paddled to compress and strengthen the walls. Once totally dried they were fired in large bonfires, raising the heat gradually by moving them closer to the fire in stages and then finally into the heart of the blaze. The cooling down process was as gradual as the heating. One can sometimes make out the paddle marks on shards of early Indian pottery; carbon deposits generally indicate that they held cooking foods over fire.
Cooking pots were most often rounded affairs with open mouths and somewhat pointed or sharply rounded bottoms. They sat over the heat on stone tripods, usually thin rocks propped in a vertical position and spaced far enough apart to permit the placement of gently burning branches between them, and sufficiently high to hold the pot a small distance above them. The cooking pits themselves were shallow depressions lined with flat rocks (often large river stones) which themselves held and reflected additional heat to the cookery. As fuel gathering was arduous, often depending on dead wood dragged in and broken without the benefit of metal axes, there were clear advantages to small fires. And as most of the day's food consumption was often taken at one large noon meal, the central clay cooking pot simmering over a small fire accounted for a good deal of the preparation.
Of course there were also smaller articles made of clay-cooking pots of more modest sizes, sometimes with narrowed necks to slow down evaporation, for example. Such early clay pots, when complete and in good condition, are most difficult for the collector to find, and their authenticity is easily called into question because of the ease of manufacturing copies and falsification of their age. Even apparently mended artifacts are difficult to assess. Indeed the lovely pottery most often associated with Native American crafts is of relatively recent manufacture, and not always of authentic design.
By way of contrast, stone articles are far more durable. Often found buried in farmers' fields or streams or unearthed in archaeological digs, familiar and unbroken arrowheads and celts are far more common in collections today. Among the food processing tools, celts are similar to arrowheads, but larger and stubbier and not pointed or sharp- their flattened tips were used more as a scraper than a knife, and their blunted ends could be put to pounding. One of my favorite celts was made with two finger grooves on one side and a single one for the thumb opposite; it fits very comfortably in the hand and the user can get a firm grip on it. It is remarkably well balanced and is equally easy to use left or right handed, with the scraping edge or the pounding edge up or down. On first glance the grooves might suggest that is was a hatchet, and the grooves used to attach the stone to a wooden haft; however, the grooves do not continue around the face, where they would be most strengthening, and appear only at the edges where they are to be held (note illustration). This piece speaks of exquisite form and function and is anything but "primitive."
Even more prized today, large and small paired grinding stones are treasures indeed. The amount of work and skill needed to shape the larger "mullers and mealing slabs" or mortars probably gave them extra value even when they were new. Comparable to the large tree-trunk wooden mortar and pestle of the Woodland Indians, they were indispensable for the smaller jobs-endless nut cracking, pounding and powdering of dried meats, fish, fruits and vegetables, as well as seed and root pulverizing, and were irreplaceable in the Southwest where there was little wood. In the American southwest, staple corn was ground into meal on a series of low tablets-the metates y manos-often arranged in a row according to roughness. The corn was transferred sequentially from coarse to finer stones as a group of women knelt before them in a row to grind fine flour for the community.
Soapstone, a relatively soft stone, was relatively easy to carve into small bowls and griddles. They often took their shapes from the original un-worked piece of rock, efficiently fashioning protrusions into handles. The most beautifully done are remarkably thin and graceful.
Much of the stone work was accomplished by flint knapping. Tools of a harder rock were used to strike a glancing blow against the edge being formed, chipping flakes that could in themselves be turned to some use. When the rough shape was finished, other stones were scraped and rubbed, smoothing out the surfaces and adding fine details. Glassy obsidian broke into flakes of incredible sharpness to produce prized knife blades. Many knives of different stone were shaped into flat rounds, rather than long strap shapes, and would appear to have been stronger to both use and to make. Today the art of flint knapping has found a following among practitioners of "primitive" crafts, and it is possible to buy reproductions, or to learn to make your own, again adding an element of possible confusion in the marketplace.
A number of other food-working tools were made from animal bone or horn, and sometimes this took surprisingly little work. The jawbone of a deer, for example, was used to scrape the juicy kernels of young sweet corn from the cob; bone husking pins have helped to loosen dry kernels from the cobs. I have found very few modern scrapers to do this job as easily.
Basketry is another form often associated with food. In addition to the familiar gathering and storage functions, some baskets were designed with specific tasks in mind. For example, when removing the tough hulls of hominy corns, the kernels were first soaked in a lye solution (wood ashes and water) which softened and loosened them. Then they were placed in large baskets woven with projecting points of twisted splints on the inside, and rimmed with a large, open-weave holes. These were often placed in streams or running water to rinse out the lye. Gentle shaking further dislodged the hulls, which floated away through the edging holes. Other baskets were designed to served as steamers, sifters, or drying trays. A variety of materials were used in basket making- in addition to hickory or oak splints they applied corn husks, grasses, and barks.
The tanned hides or bladders of game animals also did a surprising amount of cooking. Fashioned into watertight sacks, they were used as boiling pots. Hung away from the fire, avoiding the fire pit flames which would have been injurious to the leather, they were hung filled with water into which super-heated rocks were dropped. It took only a few stones to bring the "pot" to boiling and to begin cooking.
Articles carved from wood were also common. One thinks of the wonderful bowls-large and small-and a great variety of spoons, ladles, and stirrers. Tongs were made from the elastic branches of split hickory, and used as broiling racks or coal lifters. And there were assorted drying racks. Even bark was shaped into knives and baskets.
Seen together they represent a complete batterie de cuisine. Cooking with them inevitably impresses the diners with the fine food they can turn out. There is no need to feel sorry for early Indians on account of limited cookware, as their cooking technology was wonderfully suited to their ingredients, and offered a potential very close to that of their European counterparts.
Note: You may wish to consult Arthur C. Parker, Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants, Albany, 1910; reprinted by Iroquois Reprints, Ontario, Canada, 1983; also F. W. Waugh, Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation, Ottawa, 1916, facsimile edition by National Museums of Canada, 1973.
The following recipes have been prepared successfully in my workshops countless times, using carefully crafted reproductions and old recorded recipes using ingredients native to the New World. They are equally suited to back yard charcoal grills and modern indoor kitchens.
Sunflower Seed Cakes
Place sunflower seeds and water in a saucepan, and cover. Set over a medium heat, bring to a boil, and then simmer for about 30-40 minutes until seeds are soft enough to mash between your fingernails (rather like al dente pasta - no crispness in the middle). Drain, reserving water. Grind or pound the seeds into a coarse mash. Reserve. Grind or pound pumpkin seeds more coarsely. Combine the seed mixtures.
Add hazel nut butter or pounded nuts, maple syrup or sugar, and cornmeal enough to make a dough that is dry enough to shape in your hands. Add a little reserved boiling water if the dough gets too stiff.
Shape into firm flat cakes about 2" in diameter, just as you would shape miniature hamburgers.
Heat the griddle to a moderate heat. Grease with lard or bacon fat. Fry-bake cakes, turning from time to time until they are golden and crusty on both sides. Serve warm or cold.
Note: this recipe may be varied with the addition of seasonal native ingredients such as blueberries or cranberries.
3 cups shelled raw sunflower seeds
3 cups water
1/2 cup shelled raw pumpkin seeds
2-3 tablespoons hazel nut butter, or pounded roasted hazel nuts
6 tablespoons or more fine stone-ground cornmeal
2 teaspoons maple syrup or maple sugar
1/2 cup lard or bacon grease (nearest thing to bear grease)
Baked Fish in Clay
Use a 2-3 pound fish like blue fish or sea bass (not too flat). Use the entire fish whole - do not clean, scale, open or gut it. Completely encase in potters clay (the kind you fire in a kiln) about fi inch thick on all surfaces. Set on a bed of coals and cover with an additional layer of coals. Bake for about 10- 15 minutes, or until clay has been fired and is hard on all sides.
Remove from the fire using 2 flat utensils. Place on a heat-resistant platter. Begin to remove hard clay in pieces and discard. Serve the fish of the top fillet. Then remove the backbone and serve the bottom. You will note that all the contents of the body cavity have hardened into a small ball that is easily removed and discarded, and that the scales and skin stick to the clay and are removed with it.
As the scales and fins often leave a pleasing impression on the clay, some people enjoy participating in the "opening." If you are inclined to re-create the dining experience itself, you may wish to serve and eat the fish with your fingers.
Note: this form of preparing fish works especially well with such oily fish as bluefish, salmon, or mackerel. The results are anything but oily, and will surprise you pleasantly with their moist delicacy. This kind of cookery is actually a kind of self-contained steaming.
Alice Ross brings 25 years as a dedicated food professional teacher, writer, researcher and collector to her Hearth Studios, at which she teaches workshops in various aspects of hearth, woodstove and brick oven cookery. She has served as consultant in historical food for such noted museums as Virginias Colonial Williamsburg and The Lowell National Historical Park in Massachusetts. Ross wrote her doctoral dissertation in food history at the State University at Stony Brook. Currently, she is involved in a major kitchen report on Rock Hall Museum, a 1770s Georgian mansion on Long Island. Dr. Ross e-mail address is aross@binome.com. Her web site is www.aliceross.com
Burning Tree Wood Fired Grill
1 unit three well Chinese wok
3 pcs round grills (BBQ Galore)
3 pcs woks 24 inch
3 pcs wok lids
wood smoke chips
This cooking system was developed for Burning Tree Native Grill to simulate, in a commercial kitchen environment, wood fire cooking. By Using the gas fired wok high temperatures can be attained and maintained with no gas flames near the food. The wok acts as a base for wood chips which smoke
due to high temperature but do not flame. The cooking is actually accomplished with the heat generated by the gas flames beneath the wok. Only a few ounces of wood chips are needed to develop smoke flavor. Changing wood type and flavor can be accomplished dish by dish. With a three wok stove you can cook three different smoked favored items simultaneously. Cooking is done on the grill which is supported by the rims of the wok and a center support built into the grill for moving it up and down. This grill is manufactured for campground and campground type of BBQ pits. A wok cover is used for increasing heat and holding the wood smoke in.
A wok configuration without the grill can be used for pot cooking and frying such as fry bread.
Contributor: Burning Tree Native Grill
Fry Bread Production
1 unit donut cooker
1 unit donut drainer
1 long tongs
By utalizing a commercial donut deep fryer any size of fry bread can be produced. The normal commercial deep fryer with baskets is limited in width but useful for small production. As mentioned above a wok cooker filled with oil can be used as well but is good for medium sized production. In a large fry bread producing area nothing can match the donut kettle. As you can see the above kitchen is using two fryers.
Native Baking
Southwestern oven baking in hornos is a legacy of the Spanish and is found throughout the pueblos. The oven produces a crusty bread and other fine baked items. One noted commercial bakery, Jakes Bakery, at Pueblo Acoma uses two large hornos. The Italians have their wood fired piza ovens and Native America has it's trusty horno.
Building An Horno: The Adobe Bread Oven
Learning how to build the adobe bread oven (or horno as it is called in Spanish-speaking parts of the world) is an ideal introduction to sun-dried mud brick construction, mud mortar and mud plastering. These are the three basic skills needed for any adobe construction. In addition, one also may gain experience in small dome (3'-6' high) construction, which could lead to larger, more skilled adobe projects.
The process of making the adobe bricks defines this method of earthen construction. In contrast to cob construction, where walls are directly hand formed by shaping thick layers of mud; adobe walls, domes and vaults are made of individual sun-dried mud bricks, bonded together with mud mortar.
One of the attractive advantages of building with adobe is that suitable material is most often right under the workers' feet. In New Mexico and other desert states, such a soil is mostly sand (70-90%) with varying amounts of clay and fine silts totaling from 10% to 30%. The individual sand grains (coarse and smooth) provide the 'structure' which is bound together by the very fine and sticky clay particles. An ideal proportion for adobe bricks and mortar is 70% sand and 30% clay.
Another advantage of working with adobe is the relative speed in which house walls can be built, seven courses a day for walls 10' or 14' thick, and three courses high each day for walls 20'-28' thick during sunny hot weather.
For strength and durability, as well as aesthetics, the adobe brick and mud plasters should have a low number of small shrinkage cracks, which often occur during drying. The New Mexico adobe code specifies that each brick may have no more than three cracks, and no crack can be greater that two
inches in length or one-eighth inch in width.
One of the simplest yet most most important field tests for characterizing the adobe soils used to make bricks or plaster is to perform the 'jar test' by filling a clear (glass) container half way with dirt, then fill it the rest of the way with water. Shake it well and then let the material settle out. The largest particles settle first, such as gravel and then coarse sand. After about an hour, further gradation results with layers of fine silt and then clay at the top. By visual inspection one is able to estimate the relative proportions of clay to sand. After having made a few test adobes and doing the jar test, you will know if you need to add amendments such as straw or more sand, if there is too much cracking, or more clay if the adobe is too sandy and weak.
The standard sized adobe for building in New Mexico is 10' wide, 14' long, and 3.5' thick (the width of a wooden 2'x4' form). These are usually produced at the local 'adobe yard,' though many are made by owner-builders. However, the adobe walls of the horno (5'-8') are only half the thickness of adobe home walls. And the only way to procure such a diminutive adobe unit is to make it yourself!
Crafting the Horno
There are two ways of forming each adobe for the walls of the horno: with a wooden form, or directly shaped by hand. A slurry of mud is placed in a form and left to set for awhile. The form is then removed and the adobes left to dry in the sun. By use of the form (approximately 4'x7'x 2.5'), each adobe will be the same size (with more complex angles if desired), which allows simple mortaring and assemblage for making the round shape. This formed adobe would ideally be pie shaped (and truncated at the narrow
end).
The hand-moulded adobe is actually the simplest and most ancient method, (dating back at least 10,000 years to in the Middle Eastern town of Jericho.) This creative and fun method works best in rainy areas. Not only can you shape an adobe that will be thinner and thus dry much faster, it will also bond better with the mortar and stay in place (as on an incline at the top of the dome). In reality, there are many ways of building an adobe oven. Following the simple rule of using materials that are closest at hand, you have freedom to create in adobe and stone.
To successfully construct the horno, it should be built in phases to allow drying to occur for stronger support of the next overlaying courses. An elevated foundation is needed to keep the oven above the potentially wet ground, and as a convenience when cooking. This can vary in height from one to three feet, with the width of the oven being 2' to 6'. Located away from ponding areas (standing water) with some drainage, stones or adobes are placed in mud mortar at ground level to begin the massive base. Sometimes for the taller bases, this beginning phase should take two work
sessions (for a longer drying period).
Now the small dome of the oven can be started on the top of the platform hearth. The shape of the floor plan is circular with an opening for the fire wood, bread and pies. The dried adobes are placed in mud mortar, positioned and leveled. The layers of mortar can vary from 1/2' to 1' thick
to accommodate irregularities in the adobes.
There are two ways of making the inward curving walls which close together at the top of this small dome: by laying the adobes flat and corbeling inward, or by inclining adobes at an increasing angle as the horno rises up and closes at the top. I find that when teaching at elementary schools, either method will work, though the corbeling method is usually simpler. By laying each course of adobe flat in mortar but projecting 1'-2' over the course below it, the small dome is formed as the courses close in on themselves.
This mud oven should be built in two or three sessions so as to allow drying. The horno opening will close in the shape of an arch, but will slope inward with each succeeding adobe course. Sometimes you may need to use a stone lintel (flat beam) to bridge the gap at this point. At this stage the oven shape is weakest, so it is important to stop building for a few days so it can dry better.
It is now time to lay the last (3-6) adobe courses to close the top of the oven into a dome. Near the top, on the side away from the prevailing wind, put an opening the width of a soda can (laid in the adobe but later removed) to allow for the fire smoke to escape. As these small walls go up remember to mud plaster the interior walls while you can more easily reach them.
To complete the building of the horno, it must be mud plastered on the outside. Again, it is best to wait a number of days for the adobe work to dry. Begin by shaping the adobes and dried mortar to a pleasing shape. A stick wrapped with expanded metal lath makes a good shaping tool. Brush off the loose adobe chips and dust to insure better bonding with the mud plaster. Wet the surface (sprinkle water with whisk broom) to further ensure a good bond of the mud plaster to the adobe walls. The mud is applied by lightly throwing it on, and then after an area is covered, sprinkle water on the plaster and then spread the surface smooth. If this first layer of mud plaster (which is about 3/4' thick) cracks too much, give the horno a second coat of plaster (1/4' thick).
Before putting the fire in the horno, it is best to let all the mortar and plaster be dried. The first fire should be small and brief so as not to crack the walls of the oven. Now the horno is ready to be used. Build a large fire in the oven for about an hour. Sweep out the coals and ashes and place the bread dough inside. To enclose the heat, stop up the smoke hole with a rag and close over the oven opening with a large stone and mud, or with a piece of wood with mud sealing the edges. The thermal mass of the adobe walls will store enough heat to cook the food for 1 1/2 to 2 hours.
Your bread is ready!
Michael Moquin is a preservation craftsman, a mud plaster artisan and the
editor of the Adobe Journal. PO Box 7725, Albuquerque NM 87194
Contributor: MICHAEL MOQUIN
Adobe Oven #2
materials:
25 standard house bricks
trailerful of clayey dirt
straw (1 bale )
15 firebricks 23x11.5x2.5cm
1 1/2 bags densecrete
1 tub-shaped basket 61x58cm
newspaper
masking tape
aluminium flashing
wood for door
short length flue
cardboard
tray
trowels
Method:
1. Prepare base, making sure it is level.
2. Position bricks, 5x5 rows, about 2.5cm apart. Shovel over adobe dirt,and sweep into gaps. Water in dirt. Repeat this process four timesaltogether.
3. Mix up Densecrete. Spread on bricks to width of basket, 1cm thick. Set in firebricks, 3x5 rows.
4. Mix adobe. Proportions are according to the quality of the dirt (which should be dirt, not potting soil nor anything like unto it). Less cohesive dirt will need more straw; more cohesive dirt will need less straw. Ideally, the dirt should have a significant amount of clay. Spread alternating layers of dirt and straw in wheelbarrow or tub. Add enough water to moisten, and mix. The mixture should be firm enough to form a ball when cupped within your hands.
5. Saw basket in half. If it spreads, bring it back to shape with two pieces of wire or string fastened on the cut edges, stretching from side to opposite side. Position basket half over firebricks. Cover basket with newspaper, fastening it on with masking tape.
6. Make the entrance. You can do this either of two ways: a) Cut aluminium flashing to fit front of oven exactly. Cut out a square () in the middle to fit in the door. Attach to basket with masking tape. b) Place square tray where you would like door. Fill gaps between tray and basket with cardboard, fastening it on with masking tape. (The tray will be removed as soon as adobe is set though not rock-hard.)
7. Cut piece of flue, about 20cm long. Make one side flat, and one side angled. Fasten flue, angled-side down, to basket with masking tape.
8. Spread basket with Densecrete 2cm thick, going down the front flashing or cardboard. You can either: a) Wait until Densecrete hardens before applying adobe. b) Work simultanenously. Apply a patch of Densecrete, and immediately cover it with adobe.
9. Cover entire structure, including housebricks, with adobe, working to the edge of the flue and door. Adobe needs to be 10-12.5cm thick. Make sure the top is not too rounded, or it will not hold heat as efficiently.
10. Allow oven to dry for at least a week. During this time, place a tarp over (not on) it at night, or during rain. Cracks will develop as it dries and settles.
11. Make door to fit entrance, either: a) Out of wood to fit entrance made of flashing (wooden doors need to be soaked in water before using). Attach a wooden handle. b) Out of adobe or densecrete, using the tray as a mould. When making a door this way, the handle needs to be set into the adobe or
densecrete. We used two trowels, covering the spreading part and leaving the handles exposed.
12. When oven is hard and dry to the touch, light the first fire. This is a fast a furious fire made up of kindling and small wood. The flames need to leap up high enough to ignite the basket. Position a fire screen over the entrance. Oven may sweat out the remaining internal moisture (although ours
didn't), and will progress from warm to hot to the touch. After oven has cooled, make a light slurry out of the adobe dirt and water, and seal up cracks. Allow to dry once more. Oven is now ready to be used.
As time progresses, and with use, more cracks will develop. These are normal, and running repairs are a part of owning the oven. simply keep some adobe dirt on hand, and mix up a slurry to patch them up whenever they appear.
Oven No #3
You'll need concrete blocks [6 by 8 by 16 inches]; bricks; 4 inch concrete wire; chicken wire; cement; plenty of mud [any type from loamy to hard clay will do]; an empty 1-lb. coffee can [both ends removed]; plastic sheeting to cover the oven while it's mud coating cures; and exterior latex paint. To form the ovens top contour, use a 28 gal. paper barrel or drum [about 27 in. tall], split lengthwise with a hacksaw or sabersaw. Buy the drum from a lumber yard or check the listings under 'barrels and drums' in the yellow pages. Finally, you'll need a 2-in. thick wooden oven door, at least 18 in. tall and wide. Give it an arched top and be sure to add a handle.
CONSTRUCTING THE OVEN
Arrange and level 12 concrete blocks in a 32-by 48-in rectangle. Top with 2 layers of bricks, probably fire bricks[you'll need 96 bricks]. Cut a draft hole to fit a 1-lb. coffee can in top curve of bottom end of halved drum; then set cut edge of drum on a U-shaped wall of bricks stacked 3 high. [this takes 33 more bricks-- three 3- layer stacks supporting each side]. Shape a 3- by 4-foot piece of 4-foot piece of chicken wire over top and back of drum; cut out wire over draft hole. Fit an empty 1-lb can with both ends removed in draft hole, leaving 4 in. protruding outside the drum. Then force blended mud through wire onto drum, making Walls at least 4 in. thick. To make blended mud, mix 12 shovelfuls of concrete plus enough water to make a thick, malleable paste; you need about 3 bags of cement total. Set door in place. Mold a close-fitting oven opening around door; remove door when mud has firmed slightly. Smooth surface of oven by hand with a little water. Cover with wet clothes and plastic sheeting. Let cure for 4 to 5 days, moistening cloths frequently to keep them wet. Then uncover and paint with exterior latex. [After frequent use, repaint to help conceal cracks and smoke marks.]
Piki Stone
Pikin in a Pan
See the section on Piki Bread for detail process and recipes. Piki is made similar to crepes and thin hot cakes. Any crepe pan can be used as well as a griddle or plain pan as above. The piki stone is the original and authentic cooking method. A good pizza stone can be substituted if cured.
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